Identification of managerial, financial, legal and ethical Essay - 2

Distinguishing proof of administrative, budgetary, lawful and moral ramifications - Essay Example Whatever assembly that relates to the topic is secured under a lot of working environment Torts. Inadequate regulatory correspondence prompts disappointment and the development of worry inside the association. A significant explanation behind this could be the legitimate guideline of â€Å"Respondeat Superior† which puts the obligation of the exercises of the worker on the prevalent or the supervisor. In this manner, the senior †junior relationship is continually stressed and is one of unending examination as opposed to warmth or friendship. At one extraordinary of this we have the propensity among some in capacity to mishandle their situation through dangers, misuse, terrorizing and retaliatory release, which are all reason for lawful activity. With an end goal to lessen the likelihood of illegitimate release, a few states, for example, Connecticut, Montana, Maine and Michigan have authorized enactment that shields representatives from terminations that are seen as subjective and fanciful (Pozgar and Santucci, 2007). At the opposite end, the representatives themselves ought to morally hold fast to a severe set of accepted rules that regards persistent explicit and office explicit data. Additionally, the court articulated a corporate carelessness convention in 1965 under the Darling Vs Charleston Community Memorial Hospital which expressed unmistakably that an emergency clinic has the obligation to give an enough prepared clinical and nursing staff. Legitimate sculptures and work environment torts necessitate that businesses must impart plainly to forthcoming representatives that their work is freely and can be fired whenever by either the business or the worker. This will urge the representative to work appropriately just as clear any confusions that may emerge later. Lately be that as it may, the standard that work for an uncertain term is restricted by the business at whatever point and for whatever cause he picks

Language Learning Strategies

In the course of the most recent couple of decades, ‘college of self-education’ has accepted more significance than the ‘college of education.’ That is to state, an observable change has occurred, concerning language learning. The accentuation is more on students and learning than instructors and educating. The arrangement of language training has experienced transformative changes. The attention is on the student. The student focused educational program and the student centeredness concerning language instruction are the ideas practically speaking at this point. Numerous papers/articles have showed up stressing the above move. The utilization of language learning systems (in second and unknown dialect (LLS) in second and unknown dialect (L2/FL) for learning and educating have become some portion of the language syllabi.Defining of Language Learning Strategies:â€Å"Weinstein and Mayer (1986) characterized learning methodologies (LS) comprehensively as â₠¬Å"behaviors and contemplations that a student takes part in during learning† which are â€Å"intended to impact the student's encoding process† (p. 315) Later Mayer (1988) all the more explicitly characterized LS as â€Å"behaviors of a student that are planned to impact how the student forms information† (p. 11).Human creatures have the natural propensity to process the language and realizing which in truth implies preparing of the data. Learning abilities are the indivisible piece of the learning procedure, whatever be the substance or setting. Learning aptitudes are put to use in all subjectsâ€like Mathematics, History, Geography, Language and so on. Learning condition differ, it very well may be casual just as study hall setting.As for L2/FL educationâ€it has been characterized by Tarone (1983) as â€Å"an endeavor to create phonetic and sociolinguistic ability in the objective language †to fuse these into one's entomb language competence† (p. 67). Tarone, E. (1983).The prior spotlight was on the semantic or sociolinguistic ability. It has logically changed and the present accentuation is on forms and the attributes of LLS. One point by chance. LLS are particular from learning styles. Learning styles chiefly worry to intrinsic, characteristic and picked methods of taking note of, engrossing and preparing the procured data and aptitudes. There exists, be that as it may, an unmistakable connection between one’s own style of learning the language and the language learning procedures received by one.Good language student/High Proficient students:The ways or taking in a language differs from individual to individual. The choicest method to become familiar with a language can not be singled out. The most ideal approach to get the language originates from inside. You want to gain proficiency with a specific language and along these lines you are drenched in the related exercises that help the reason. Understand books, watch films, collaborate with individuals who communicate in that language, study the related articles in the magazines. On the off chance that you develop a companion hover in your preferred language, you get the language rapidly. You need not give extraordinary consideration to the language structure at the underlying stages. Join a mentored course and own a self-study package.Tutored learning is the usually acknowledged mode to learn and get aptitude in a language. The accomplished instructor in a homeroom, who has dealt with many understudies previously, knows their underlying issues and the related arrangements can give inspiration to the language students. Language learning need not be a genuine and tense exercise. In the event that you travel and visit the nation of the focused on language, your language related inquiries and issues get a programmed arrangement. Over the period, you find that you have gotten the language.Foreign language learning strategies:Research made to locate the best strategy to train a language is voluminous. The significant responses to this issue originated from the students themselves. It was discovered that tried systems assume a successful job in the region of language learning. Of the considerable number of techniques the ones characterized by Oxford (1990) gave a framework and solidness to the entire procedure. Oxford saw learning techniques as â€Å"specific activities taken by the student to make inclining simpler, quicker, progressively pleasant, increasingly self coordinated, progressively viable, and increasingly transferable to new situations† (p.8). The techniques are separated in to two categories:Direct Strategies: They are additionally grouped into a) Memory methodologies b) Cognitive procedures c) Compensation strategies.Indirect Strategies: These are additionally characterized into a) Metacognitive Studies b) Affective Strategies c) Social Strategies(Oxford, 1990, p 16)Memory systems are, I) making ment al pictures, ii) applying pictures and sounds, iii) investigating well.Cognitive systems are,  i) rehearsing, ii) dissecting and thinking iii) making structure for info and output.Compensation methodologies are, I) speculating shrewdly, ii) conquering constraints in talking and writing.As for Indirect Strategies,Metacognitive procedures are, I) focusing your learning, ii) masterminding and arranging your learning iii) assessing your learning.Affective procedures are, I) bringing down your uneasiness, ii) empowering yourself, iii) taking your enthusiastic temperature.Social methodologies are, I) posing inquiries, ii) co-working with others, iii) relating to other people. (Oxford, 1990, p 17).Factors influencing the Choice of Learning Strategies:Many factors impact the choice of techniques utilized by the understudies learning a subsequent language. The most significant factor is inspiration. An exceptionally energetic understudy is not quite the same as the less inspired one. On th e off chance that one has a specific and solid purpose behind learning the language, one gets the language quick. Now and again, profession outlines are connected to the language. In such cases, one is required to become familiar with a language inside the predetermined period. Females utilize such methodology in a more noteworthy degree than the male partners. Retention is identified with social foundation. Asian understudies indicated higher level of mastery around there. Mentalities and convictions assume the prevailing job. The negative mentalities don't support the reason. The uplifting mentalities have a significant impact. The sort of errand helps with deciding the system utilized to complete it. With respect to the age, the more established and further developed understudies utilize various procedures. Learning style is likewise one of the significant factors in the choice of the system. Resistance of vagueness is straightforwardly identified with the determination of the te chnique. (Language†¦..)Proficiency and language learning strategies:The number of English language students is rising consistently. Exceptional mediations for underachieves are in this way important. Various methodologies are gone after for encouraging scholastics to understudies to whom English is a subsequent language. It is no normal undertaking to train an understudy in a language wherein he has no authority. Heaps of data is presently accessible concerning understudies hailing from various social/phonetic foundations. Right off the bat, the conventional friend helped Learning Strategies to upgrade understudy effectiveness in English are compelling. Such a system has demonstrated positive outcomes on the perusing achievement.Another intercession is Bilingual Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition program. This was advantageous for the Spanish-talking understudies. In this mediation the attention is on composing, perusing in both Spanish and English language exercise s. The understudies are partitioned into little co-usable students gatherings. Another development is Instructional Conversations and Literature Logs. The objective here is to upgrade the cognizance capacity and furthermore English language capability. Significance is given to little gathering conversations. The instructors  act as facilitators for the gathering, while the gathering of understudies is occupied with recounting stories, relate individual encounters which are helpfulâ in seeing one another, keep points and ideas, composing freely short notes according to the composing prompts.Answer questions identified with stories and so on. The activities have high potential consequences for the Language students and they add to quick improvement of the English language abilities. They additionally help the relational abilities. â€Å"The Vocabulary Improvement Program for English Language Learners and Their Classmates (VIP) is a jargon advancement educational plan for English language students and local English speakers (grades 4-6). The 15-week program incorporates 30 brief entire class and little gathering exercises, which mean to expand understudies' comprehension of target jargon words remembered for a week by week perusing assignment.†(What works†¦) Many all the more such intercessions are utilized and language learning systems followed for capability in English language.Why are LLS significant for L2?â€Å"Within ‘communicative' ways to deal with language training a key objective is for the student to create informative ability in the objective L2/FL, and LLS can help understudies in doing so.† The significance of correspondence techniques is a fundamental factor of vital skill. Correspondence expertise and language learning systems vary in substance. The speakers put forth a deliberate and cognizant attempt to convey in a L2/FL.All methodologies that L2/FL students use in the language which they plan to learn are secured un der LLS. LLS are fundamental for learning the language since they are simply the best possible devices started dynamic contribution, which is essential for improving informative skills.Conclusion:During the most recent couple of decades, numerous progressions have happened identifying with teacher’s proficient learning and therefore they have impacted and influenced the showing strategies/gauges for the understudies. Figures have affected the instructing and examining design a lot. One can see compelling utilization of innovation in all territories. The example of synergistic movement between the educators and the understudies has likewise experienced distinguishable changes and such improves are. They have assisted with making uncommon level

Boston Rain

Boston Rain Despite being the middle of winter, on Friday the entire Boston area ended up getting drenched in an unexpected deluge of rain. Yes, you read that right: rain. For a variety of reasons, this made me less than happy. Snow, you see, I could have handled. After all, snow isnt only picturesque, and fun to play with (or in), it even can serve as a metaphor for life. (Who can argue with that?) And whenever I see those first flakes falling from the sky, I wont deny that I always took a certain pleasure in running around trying to taste a few. Which makes me sound like a fifth-grader, but its true, so there you go. Rain, on the other hand, just gets everybody wet. Including me. Normally, I wouldnt really mind a little rain, because like most people I kept a pretty good pair of rain boots in my dorm room, not to mention three (count em) umbrellas. In case youre curious, and Im sure you are (not), I brought one from home, and I ended up buying the other two from LaVerdes MITs on-campus mini-mart, basically during the fall term when it spontaneously started raining during the day. Unfortunately, my excess of umbrellas was of no help to me Friday, because I wasnt in my dorm room last night. Instead, I was at my fraternity. In the interest of full disclosure, I should point out (for the parents sake, if nothing else) that all MIT students live in dormitories for their entire freshman year, regardless of whether they join any particular fraternity, sorority, or other independent living group. And in spite of being part of MITs exceptionally vibrant Greek community, Im as proud to live in Simmons Hall as any other Sim its simply that Im part of another living group in addition to Simmons. And because its IAP, I decided to take advantage of all the free time (well, more free time than Im used to, anyway) by spending a few nights over at the fraternity house. Unfortunately, since it is supposedly the middle of winter, I didnt think to bring one of my umbrellas along with me. Even so, the rain ordinarily wouldnt have been a big deal, since MITs tunnel system makes getting around campus while staying dry a pretty simple endeavor. Friday, however, was not an ordinary day and my destination was somewhere even MITs most distant tunnels couldnt reach. While I could simply tell you my story in normal, everyday prose, I decided that itd be far more amusing to do so in song. Accordingly, Ive adapted the melody of Chocolate Rain by Tay Zonady to form yet another spoof entitled, fittingly, Boston Rain. (If you havent seen or at least heard of Chocolate Rain although you probably have, since according to Wikipedia its the second most viral video in the world well, youre missing out. So go watch it!) Unfortunately, Im not going to sing it for you. Sorry, but trust me, youre better off this way. So sit back, sing along to yourself, and enjoy. =P Boston Rain (Un)original Cover By PAUL BARANAY Boston Rain Some stay dry while others feel the pain Boston Rain I got so wet I may never go outside again (*I move away from my blog to breathe in*) Boston Rain Makes it hard to get where you want to go Boston Rain Come listen to my tale of woe Boston Rain Today was in fact a special day Boston Rain I was meeting with my lab at MGH Boston Rain For my UROP is just one part of a collaboration Boston Rain Between several centers of science innovation Boston Rain Although MIT is where I do most of my work Boston Rain Visiting MGH is a cool little perk Boston Rain I woke up this morning eager to go Boston Rain Soon had me feeling pretty low Boston Rain Is hard to handle sans umbrella Boston Rain I felt like a pretty miserable fella Boston Rain All I wanted to do was take the T Boston Rain Who knew Mother Nature had other plans for me Boston Rain Walking to Copley Station really was a pain Boston Rain But once inside I got dry again Boston Rain Copley to Park Street went fairly well Boston Rain I transfered to the Red Line just swell Boston Rain Couldnt touch me on the train Boston Rain Outside MGH, I soon got soaked again Boston Rain Made finding my building slightly tough Boston Rain All in all my trip was rather rough Boston Rain But I survived to tell the tale Boston Rain Next week Ill be back for more

Occupational Research Report A Career as an Architect Essays

This Occupational Research Report is based on the career information obtained on the occupation of architecture. if focuses on the potential career of being an architect, the steps leading to obtaining a position and training, as well as the future growth and outlook of this occupation. According to Lee W. Waldrep (2010), author of the book Becoming an Architect: A Guide to Careers in Design, an architect is an imaginative person who designs a wide spectrum of structures for buildings (Waldrep, 2010, p 2). These structures must meet safety requirements in addition to being aesthetically pleasing. Architects must compete with other architects to attract clients by presenting designs. This process generally rests on building a good†¦show more content†¦The average salary of an architect ranges from a minimum of $30,000 in the nation and to an average of $66,000 in Oregon, according to Architecture Career: Salary, last updated in April of 2010, a website that provides information for individuals with an interest in architecture as a career (see chart on website). The work environment for an architect is generally more relaxed in order to allow the architect to design easier, this means that the architect may be spending ours in an office or design space, in the initial stages of design. The architect may be required to be present during the different stages of construction and thus be at the mercy of weather and construction conditions. Architects also must interact with many groups of people such as city officials, clients, engineers, etc. which provides for a dynamic work environment. According to the Career Education Advisor, a website that offers information about a variety of careers, last updated in 2007, the Architect Future Career Outlook predicted that architectural occupations will grow in the next ten years. The numbers of individuals with certifications and university degrees are increasing as well as the number of applicants for architectural positions have increased. As the level of building increases so will the need for architects of all kinds. This offers for a competitive but secure job outlook because there is always a need for building andShow MoreRelatedComputer Information And The Byu Idaho Catalog1343 Words   |  6 PagesComputer Information and Networking is a large and growing field that provides those with the appropriate skills and education a wide range of possible job opportunities. The BYU Idaho catalog has the following to say about careers in Computer Information Technologies: Careers in CIT are dynamic. 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SoRead MoreEvaluating The Field Best Acceptable For The Client s Profile2404 Words   |  10 PagesRichard Dear Professor Richard This report presents information which job are better between two different careers to be discussed by our client and suggest about the field best acceptable to the client s profile. This is a copy of the report Recommendations on Career Options†. In this report, it has been collected from credible sources and can trust this accurate information. This information sources also will help that the client decide to choose a career as review. For any question, please contactRead MoreRecommendations on Career Options2658 Words   |  11 PagesRecommendations on Career Options Dear , Enclosed is a copy of the report Recommendations on Career Options. This report presents information about the two employment opportunities discussed by our client and makes recommendation about the field best suited to the clients profile. 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The Solution Recruiting New Women In 2011, women made up only 34 percent of all computer systems analyst roles and only 13 percent of architect and engineering roles.[v] The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that computer and mathematical occupations will add nearly 800,000 new jobs between 2010 and 2020.[vi] While men presently occupy most positions in the IT field, each new position

The Use Of Personal Digital Assistants, Or Pdas, By...

There has been increase in the use of personal digital assistants, or PDAs, by individuals Traumatic Brain Injury or TBI. These devices are being used to help TBI patients with everyday activities such as keeping up with appointments, medication management, daily tasks, etc. Due to behavioral memory deficits that are common among TBI patients, these daily activities are difficult for these individuals. In the past â€Å"low-tech† items were used such as daily planners and strategically placed notes, but due to the growth of â€Å"high-tech† instruments, such as smartphones, personal computers, and PDAs, the â€Å"low-tech† devices are being used less (Gentry, Wallace, Kvarfordt, Lynch 2008 19-24). In the early stages of high-tech device use among TBI patients there were three popular computer programs that were used, but they were contained to desktop computers, which makes them useless outside of the individual’s home. Once PDA’s were introduce d these programs became obsolete. An early study of PDA use included the use a program called Psion Organizer. The study found that most TBI patients with memory deficits preferred the PDA and Psion Organizer over other low tech instruments. The Psion Organizer software is no longer available and been replaced with other software such as Palm systems. There has not been a study done on the Palm operating system. Research has been done on software specifically developed for TBI patients(Gentry, Wallace, Kvarfordt, Lynch 2008 19-24). The studyShow MoreRelatedFundamentals of Hrm263904 Words   |  1056 PagesThis online teaching and learning environment integrates the entire digital textbook with the most effective instructor and student resources With WileyPLUS: Students achieve concept mastery in a rich, structured environment that’s available 24/7 Instructors personalize and manage their course more effectively with assessment, assignments, grade tracking, and more manage time better study smarter save money From multiple study paths, to self-assessment, to a wealth of interactive visualRead MoreLibrary Management204752 Words   |  820 Pages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Do Managers Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Managerial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Managerial Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Resources Do Managers Use? . . . . . . . . . What Skills Are Needed by Today’s Managers? . What Are the Differences in Managing in For-Profit and Not-for-Profit Organizations? . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Outline Of A Rough Draft - 940 Words

Memoir Rough Draft I don’t remember if it was my choice or my parents, but in 5th grade when we were given the choice to be in band, I was very anxious to start. We got to meet with Mrs. Jones and try a few different instruments before making a decision. My top three choices were percussion, trombone, and clarinet (only because my sister had played it). I tried the clarinet first and thought it was alright, but not my favorite. I tried the trombone next, and while it was difficult, I really wanted to keep trying. I also tried percussion- she just had me keep a beat on my leg- and I thought percussion may be difficult for me, but I still wanted to do it. In the end, Mrs. Jones decided I would be best fit for the clarinet, mostly because I could use my sisters and not have to buy a new instrument. I was happy with the choice, mostly because I was excited to be playing anything! Throughout my 5th grade year, I practiced the clarinet and made my way through our first book. I enjoyed band class and lessons, especially getting to be with some of my friends, but I kept thinking about the trombone. I still wanted to play it. By the end of the year, I made up my mind. I was going to play the trombone. I talked to my parents, and my mom talked to Mrs. Jones, allowing me to take the school’s trombone home over the summer between 5th and 6th grade. The first day I got it, I couldn’t contain my excitement. I took it right out of the case and put it together. I was at my parents’ work,Show MoreRelatedOutline Of A Project Rough Draft Essay2137 Words   |  9 PagesGroup Members: Dustin Ballard Caroline Fraser Thomas Lichtenberger Brandon Mendoza Project Rough Draft SOURCES COUNT: (7/10 minimum) With the increase in humans populating the planet, there comes a need for more and more resources, as well as more highways for transportation, leading to more cars on the road, and ultimately more greenhouse gas emissions. 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He expresses the importance of starting with just a list, committing yourself completely to the project at hand, writing numerous rough drafts, and many other guidelines that can contribute to the process of effective writing. A simple list is the first step to writing the first draft of anything. In the past, I was always told that writingRead MoreThe Ideal Writing Process Is A Very Generic Way Of Writing884 Words   |  4 PagesAfter finding a topic start with a prewrite or an outline to help the writer get their thoughts together. Once this is done finding creditable resources that well make the paper stronger and give the writer more creditably. The writer then writes his rough draft that has all the elements that the outline had. Putting in all the recourse and following the format of the paper. Making sure the writer stays on topic though the paper. Once the rough draft is done, then they begin to revise the essay. HavingRead MoreThe Importance Of Academic Writing1187 Words   |  5 Pagescreating an outline. Depending on the professors’ preferences, they may require a true formal outline, while others only require a loose, less organized outline. Students must use this outline to organize information in order of relevancy to their papers. Upon completion of the outline, students must then begin their rough drafts. While writing the rough draft, students should and will reference back to the completed outline. Learning how to reference back to other sources, in this sense, an outline, isRead MoreWhy Is It Assists Me? Developing Better Organizational And Planning Skills?978 Words   |  4 Pagesstated, the next step would be making an outline on all of the information that you have gathered. The main purpose of an outline is to help you organize your paper by checking to see how your ideas connect to each other, or whether you will need to introduce a new point that previously hasn’t been stated. 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Construction of Olympic Games Competition

Question: Write an essay which critically evaluates the economic, environmental social impacts on Brazil of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and how any lessons learned could possibly be applied to the forthcoming 2016 Olympic Games? Answer: International events and festivals have always been some of the most awaited events by the people across the world. Principal attractive features of the events for are considered while advertised o the internet, television, reality shows and social media. In case of most of the international events, celebrities from different field are appointed such as sports, music, business, fashion etc for advertising and promoting the events. It has been found that these factors attract people as they like to enjoy the performance and get engaged emotionally. After all, the main aim of this type of events is to attract individuals throughout the world, to make the event colorful in all dimensions. International events and festivals have different impacts including both positive and negative impacts on that particular place, society and economy (Alpert, 1994). It has been observed that most of these effects may be prominent even before the occurrence of the event. In most cases, such events influence the stakeholders including the participants, local businesses and the host community. Prior to the event, some events will create a positive impact and some will create a negative impact on the stakeholders. Preparing for such event can be very overwhelming as many of the organizers want to make the event multicultural and they would not want a situation that would disappoint their participants. This experience in most cases should be treated as an adventure such that most of the individuals who will wish to attend will have a lot to see and the experience should be unique and enjoyable. From the government to the local community, everyone takes part in preparing the event to make its unfolding as high as expected. As most of the visitors come from foreign countries, various things such as immigrations passports, transportation and accommodation must be considered. The host should have the ability to gauge the average number of people who might be attending the event and therefore, organize their affordable accommodations. The investors can get an opportunity to generate significant profit by offering best accommodation to their guests. Hence, the international events and festivals can contribute in the tourism industry as well as the allied industry of the economy. The local tourism sector can gain significant advantages from these events as the visitors of the events are alos interested to travel and explore different part of the countries. According to Forbes (2014), World Cup 2014 was indeed overwhelming for Brazilians and they were not able to provide enough accommodation for all the people who visited the country during the event and most of them had to share hotel rooms. Another aspect i s that the hotel industry had capitalized the opportunity and increased the rate of hotel services (Goyal, 2010). It has been found that the visitors from different nations blamed the government as it is the responsibility of the government to ensure that the visitors get proper accommodation. The visitors were frustrated as their expenditure exceeded the budget as they got exploited. The government needs to be very strict about the immigration matters. This would help in controlling the number of people visiting the country as well as help in understanding their intentions and needs. Moreover, it is important ensure that they has potential monitor the activities of the guests. This would also assure a good estimation of the possible revenue and income prior to the event. Issues regarding security breach may lead to various problems and the country will encounter significant loss and incur uncontrolled expenses. The major responsibility of the Immigration Ministry is to serve the gu ests efficiently so that it makes them feel welcomed in the host country, and they can roam around peacefully within the nation. In order to offer highest level of enjoyment during the rip, the host nation need to focus on training the guides who will assists the guests from various locations. The guides will provide maps and guide them regarding the different areas which can be visited. Additionally, they will explain the cultural aspects o the host nation for ensuring safe and sound stay in the host country. Some of the attendees experience the cultural shock while most people experience the physical and psychological shocks when visiting a new nation having different culture and environment. Most of the guest sometimes might find a culture entirely different from what they were expecting and sometimes they tend to be affected by some things such as health issues, loss of appetite or excess fatigue. Such issues must be considered by the organizers of the international events and festivals and medical staff must be appointed for providing medical services to the visitors (Douglas, 2011). Travelling abroad and leaving your safe place can cause serious difficulties for some people. It is important for the organizers to address the cultural shock of the visitors. Later, the visitors start adapting the new things of the new country and they start enjoying the festival. At this point of time, the visitors start appreciating the services received and accept the eating and drinking habits along with the customs of the host nation. Thus, the emotions of the visitors become stable. This stage can be invested for attracting the visitors even when no international events or festival takes place. A good organization of services such as tourism and instruction for guests provide the essential background in organizing the FIFA World Cup. This event was one of the crucial events undertaken by the government of nation for making it huge succes. This primary aim was to provide a high quality and competent service for the guests so as to reinforce the nation's picture as a perfect holiday destination (Goyal, 2010). More than 16 600 people were enrolled in the program during these preparations. Additional taxi drivers, tour agent, civil and military police, city police and fire department and the reaction unit to guarantee the wellbeing of the entire event was assured and they were all trained to welcome visitor during the World Cup. Health and safety are the most fundamental factors during the preparation of any local or international event and the moment these factors are assured, all the guests find a good time to enjoy their stay in the host country (Getz, 1997). It is suggested that the visitors must be careful regarding their health so that they can enjoy the events. Moreover, the guests are always advised to ask for assistance from the tourist guide who will help in identifying unsafe places. It also should be a concern to understand the real motive of their guests visiting the festivals since some of them disguise as tourist with the intention of taking advantage of the significant event to make crimes and stealing from the other guest, some of them involve in the drug traffic and all sorts of illegal trades. The guests are advised not to travel alone especially at night, avoid public demonstrations such as the one which took place in Sao Paulo ahead of the World Cup opening ceremony and because tourism w ould be more approachable by thieves. They were advised to keep their bags zipped and wear the shoulder strap of a bag across the chest and always carry the hotel name, address and telephone number with them, written in the local language. They should always keep the door locked all the times at the hotel. For example, during FIFA World Cup tournament in Brazil, a lot of preparation had to be made to assure the security of the tourists, especially in Rio de Janeiro and they even had to install electronic devices such as CCTV to assist in enhancing safety in the town (Kassens-Noor, 2012). Strategic plan is an essential element of the event management procedure which makes all the staffs engaged during the preparation of the events. Staff engagement generates additional inputs and helps to build the commitment to the end plan. For such an international festival, all the process should run as planned, and all the activities should be highly designed to avoid bad reviews and experiences for the guests. It is essential to provide all the stakeholders of the event the planning of the strategy and involving them in any changes that are taking place that is providing insight into issue, challenges, concern and opportunities which may not have been known or fully understood by al the personnel in the bid to make the event successful (Kegley, 1975). Strategic planning can only be successful when both bottom up and top down communication approach is implemented while the event is being organized. It begins with a correspondence to all levels of representatives by educating them about all the procedures and the way they will be handling the guests and always take the event as if it is their own. This virtue will encourage the guests in the host country since they will enjoy the hospitality given to them, and they will want always want to come back due to the cooperation they were offered. When the event is taking place, there are many factors that take place contributing positively or negatively to the society and in the host country. Hosting major sporting events such as World Cup tournaments can give many economic, social and cultural benefits, however the cost of hosting is also quite high but there are different factors which determine whether the benefits outweigh the costs. There various advantages of hosting an international event which includes: Enhances the Country Profile - This can lead to significant economic benefits, for example, cities which host the Olympic, and World Cup tournaments eventually experiences significant improvement in the tourism industry and better recognition across the globe. They become famous all over the world, and even people will keep coming to visit those cities and even consider investing in different business. For a country like China with a controversial human right record, hosting major festivals and sporting events can be a ways to gain greater international acceptance (Masterman, 2004). When South Africa hosted world Rugby Cup and later football world cup, it was the defining moment of this country in highlighting the new Post-apartheid South Africa and this raised profile can be essential for giving economic benefits such as attracting tourist and business investment. Since that world cup event, the country has been hosting other major events and it has been found that US president was present during Mandelas Burial ceremony. However, even hosting commonwealth games can be beneficial for a city like Manchester, which has been significantly benefited from hosting games, despite persistent rain. In case of Brazil, it has been observed that the economy of the nation was significantly improved after international events. It helped in enhancing the infrastructure and it will host Olympic games and World Cup tournaments in future. Long term investment - a significant benefit for long term investment is enjoyed by the host country. The long term investment is associated with the preparation of the international events. For example, most of the investment is employed for building stadium, hotels, and all the social amenities and other essential infrastructure which are permanent. Hence, later the country will have the privilege to host other international events and different sporting venues. For instance, there has been significant investment and transport projects in London and, therefore, most of the Olympic Games have been hosted in that city. This will leave an enduring legacy for the residents of London (Preuss, 2013). For example Maracana Stadium was one of the prestigious stadiums that hosted 2014 World Cup game in Brazil in Rio De Janeiro and has since been long-term investments of the Brazil and they can organize many events of such kind in the same ground not forgetting cozy hotels, thriving business environment, and advanced infrastructure. Short term economic benefits: The Olympics events will see a surge in visitors, athletes, and media personalities and it will be associated with higher level of spending and infusion of cash into the neighborhood economy, this is brought about the rise in the business opportunity brought about by the even, for instance during the 2014 World Cup tournament economy increase due to the foreign exchange in the country and improvement of different communication, transport and banking industries, although it is in short time the drastic change cannot be measured. Enthusiasm - It has been found that there are various reason to not to host major sporting activities. For example, too much debt and many challenges such as security and, immoralities that come along with such events but such major sporting and any other kind of festivals can create enthusiasm and excitement for such an event (Preuss, 2013). It helps to promote sport which has a lasting benefit for the health of the nation and incase the host country suffers from racial crises, such events brings together people with the intention to support their team without caring the race one comes from thus promoting Civic Virtues. Jobs and investment Long term and short term investments in the event organizing economies will help in creating jobs and relatively depressed cities. This was an extraordinary claim made by the London Olympics, after choosing a site in East London which at the time was relatively depressed. The same case as in Brazil where the choose cities such as Saul Paulo. It is estimated that World Cup tournament created approximately 8000 full-time jobs and assisted in boosting up the economy which led to the output of approximatley $2bn. There are several disadvantages of hosting major international events and festivals which includes: Cost of building stadiums and other infrastructure- In order to host a major sporting event like Olympics or World Cup tournament significant amount of money is required by the nation and the amount has to be paid by the taxpayers. It has been observed that these festivals and international events tend to exceed the budgeted cost. For a case of Brazil, indeed before the world container started in June it was clear that there were real issues with a few of the 12 stadiums Brazil either redesigned or constructed new to host the competition. In addition to the construction and the delays and concerns about the Brazil would do with no less than four of the stadiums once the four- week tournament ended, and also there were concerns about raising costs that had far exceeded original predictions (Alpert, 1994). There were claims of the mismanagement of funds to be used for the renovation and construction of these stadiums as a report by Reuters published that the total stadium cost was $8.4 4bn which was far exceeding the predicted value of $2.1 bn. Of the 35 public transportation projects only 5 were completed a month before the tournament as was reported by Reuters and again of the 25 airports upgrades promised only 14 were finished, and none of the incomplete public transit project was finished. The far-fetched idea that this projects will be of benefit to the country in the future was the truth, but it was really straining the economy and even the taxpayers. Short term use- Though it has been observed that the both short term and long term investments helps in improving the infrastructure, most of the capital is invested for short term purposes. For example in 2014 world cup tournament most of the stadiums were to be used only in a 4-week session. Most of the facilities build during this session might not be used in the near future (Radnedge, 2014). This problem can be mitigated by careful planning. For example, London Olympics stadium will be used for West Ham and other Olympic facilities, like Olympics village will be converted into affordable housing. This will enable the government to avoid excessive cost related to the international event which can be only used once. For a country like Brazil, they should mobilize other tournaments with their neighboring countries so that most of these facilities are at operation and in this case they will be able to generate some income and even create employment. Potential for adverse publicity- holding international event one should be aware of the different opinions by different people according to the services given to them, some of the media are just there to criticize the effort of the government to make the festivals full of fun and even comparing the previous even with the current event. The organizers should clearly understand this, and they should come up with measures to avoid such situations to take place. They ought to strive to make things work out as planned since the country will enjoy positive publicity, and the vice versa is true. For example, Delhi suffered negative publicity over the state of its facilities at the Commonwealth Games. Winter Olympics has gotten antagonistic attention due to the corruption and the cost over-runs. Cost of security and high taxes to fund the incurred costs- major international festivals have to make arrangement for high level of security. This is both the cost to restrict freedom of movement of local citizens during games to give chances to the tourist coming in (Goyal, 2010). These overwhelming activities most of the times suffers from the security breach and if not well catered them might also bring about negative publicity. In most of these countries like Brazil, taxes were reported to have doubled in most case is to assist financing the high expenditure incurred by the government. For the sake of the forthcoming Rio 2016 Olympic games the government should be aware of various challenges which was encountered during the 2014 World Cup tournament and they should make proper arrangements and planning which will help in avoiding the excessive cost. The controlled expenditure will help in conducting the event within the budget and the investment can be used for longer term. This will assist to avoid straining the taxpayers (Walker, 2012). The issue of security should be well addressed, and accommodation of the people who will attend the event this will ensure the image of Brazil is maintained, and it will also encourage more people to be visiting the country. The fact that the country will maintain a good reputation will also encourage other international events to be hosted in the country and thus gaining more revenue In conclusion, it can be stated that the international event helps in uniting world as the international events and festivals give a chance to bring most of the countries at a common point and enjoy the event together. It also gives an opportunity for interracial mingling, and people belonging to different cultural background can share their diversity and uniqueness. These events attracts people from all walks of life and it has been seen as the most efficient way of eliminating the hatred of mankind where some of the whites tends to believe they cannot share a meal with a black but in this situation they share the same roof with the aim of competing with their countries. The aftermath of these festivals is learning how other countries handle life and even learn more efficient ways to compete even in business without any hatred and mutual cohesion to make the world a better place to live and ability to live any part of the world without fear or intimidation. References: 2008 Beijing Olympic Games Action Plan: Construction of Olympic Games Competition Venues and Related Facilities. (2008). Chinese Law Government, 41(4), pp. 15-19. Alpert, M. (1994).A New worldwide history of the Spanish Civil War. New York: St. Martin's Press. Douglas, L. (2011). Zero-waste Olympic Games [waste management]. Engineering Technology, 6(12), pp. 46-47. Getz, D. (1997). Event management event tourism. New York: Cognizant Communication Corp. Goal, S. (2010). Event management. New Delhi: Adhyayan Publishers Distributors. Holt, N. (n.d.). The mammoth book of the World Cup. Hurley, M. (n.d.). World Cup 2014. Kassens-Noor, E. (2012). Planning Olympic legacies. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Kegley, C. (1975). Universal occasions and the relative investigation of remote strategy. Columbia, S.C.: Published for the Institute of International Studies, University of South Carolina, by the University of South Carolina Press. Masterman, G. (2004). Strategic sports event management. Amsterdam: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. Preuss, H. (2013). The high Contribution of the FIFA World Cup and the well known Olympic Games has facilitated to Green Economy. Sustainability, 5(8), pp.3581-3600. Radnedge, K. (n.d.). The authority 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil reality record. Walker, J. (2012). Introduction to hospitality management. [s.l.]: Prentice Hall.

Second Language Acquisition an Example of the Topic Education and science by

Second Language Acquisition Introduction Need essay sample on "Second Language Acquisition" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Learning a second language in adolescence or adulthood often proves a serious challenge for people. To realize what difficulties are involved in the process, researchers need to examine first of all factors of language acquisition, including contextual, social, and psychological ones. Popular theories of effective domain, cognitive styles and multiple intelligences in second language acquisition can also shed light on the dynamics and causes of the process. Factors Of Language Acquisition Second language acquisition can be influenced by a variety of factors: Language Distance: learners will find it easier to master the language that is genealogically related to their own than one that has a different alphabet, grammar, vocabulary etc. Thus, it is easier for a German to pick up English than for a Chinese person. The Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California, introduced a system in which languages are placed in four categories depending on their average learning difficulty from the perspective of a native English speaker (Walqui, 2000). Students Very Often Tell Us: How much do I have to pay someone to make my essay today? Writers recommend: Follow Essaylab Writing Service Cheap Essays Within Hours Professional Writing Services Pay For Essay Papers Write My Essay Online Reviews Native language proficiency: The better the student is acquainted with the academic learning of the mother tongue, its grammatical features, and various academic refinements, the easier it will be to master a forein language (Walqui, 2000). Language Attitudes: It is necessary to understand how a person perceives learning a new language. Thus, students need to understand that learning a second language does not mean giving up one's first language or dialect (Walqui, 2000). Motivation: Motivation, connected to language attitudes, means that students with more enthusiasm for learning will acquire language more quickly. Socio-Psychological Aspects In Second Language Acquisition. Apart from contextual and other factors, there are also factors directly related to social and psychological aspects of personal development. Each inpidual comes to language learning equipped with a certain set of psychological and social characteristics that directly affect this persons process of language acquisition. Among others, there are the following factors that have direct impact on language learning: Age: Although this is debatable, many linguists believe in Noam Chomskys Universal Grammar theory that posits the presence of a special language learning ability that allows a human to acquire a variety of languages as mother tongues (bilingualism) if this happens before a certain age. Similarly, many researchers of the second language acquisition process believe that there is a biological timetable for optimal language learning that stymies the efforts of adolescents and young adults to acquire language (Clyne, n.d., p. 1). An Affective Filter: Stephen Krashen has advanced a theory according to which second language acquisition is guided by an affective filter that includes the variables of motivation, anxiety and self-confidence (Clyne, n.d., p. 2). Language Shock: a concept advanced by John Shulmann meaning the fear of making a fool of oneself when attempting to communicate in a second language (Clyne, n.d., p. 3). This shock can seriously impact the ability of the person to learn a new language. Effective Domain, Cognitive Styles And Multiple Intelligences In Second Language Acquisition Researchers have proposed a number of theories that strive to explain the process of languge acquisition and to propose techniques that would enhance and facilitate language learning experience. Here belongs, for instance Gardners theory of multiple intelligences that proposes the existence of a variety of different forms of intelligence manifest in each human being to a different extent. Gardner suggested a few forms of intelligence (linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (e.g., insight, metacognition) and interpersonal (e.g., social skills)) (TIP, n.d.). Thus, according to Garnder, students, depending on the type of intelligence that is best developed can learn the language most effectively through, for instance, dancing, singing, or any other type of movement (Bell, Lorenzi, 2004). The theory of cognitive styles insists that language learning has to be aligned with inpidual cognitive peculiarities of a person. A persons cognitive style can be measured according to many dimensions, including "field independence vs. dependence", "analytic vs. global processing", "cooperation vs. competition", "tolerance for ambiguity" (Oxford, 2000). The measurement of the learning style according to the Myers-Briggs Type indicator also accounts for extraversion, intuition, emotion vs. thinking, and perception vs. judgment (Oxford, 2000). Finally, cognitive science has debated whether the language acquisition is centered around a specific domain or is spread around many cognitive domains. Many cognitive scientists posit that language learning is governed by a specific domain that includes special memory processes, schema, rules and meaning structures. Reliance on this domain is what can make language learning effective. Conclusion Language learning is a complex process that is governed by an interrelated set of factors that make it a complex subject for research. Scholars by identifying factors that affect second language acquisition are able to produce recommendations that greatly facilitate the work of EFL teachers. However, the emphasis on inpidualised approach, especially visible in cognitive styles and multiple intelligences theories reminds teachers that only practitioners are able to make links between theories and practical learning. Since inpidual learning patterns are vastly different, the teacher needs to be able to recognize and accommodate this difference between learners. References Bell, N.D., & Lorenzi, D. (2004). Facilitating Second Language Acquisition in Elementary and Secondary Physical Education Classes: The Increasingly perse Student Population Makes Every Teacher a Teacher of English. JOPERD--The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance 75 (6), pp. 46+. Clyne, S. (n.d.). Psychological Factors in Second Language Acquisition: Why Your International Students are Sundado La Gota Gorda (Sweating Buckets). Retrieved February 20, 2006. Oxford, R. (1989). The Role of Styles and Strategies in Second Language Learning. ERIC Digest. ED317087, ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics Washington DC. Retrieved February 20, 2006, from http://www.translationdirectory.com/article820.htm Walqui, Ada. Contextual Factors in Second Language Acquisition. CAL Digest, September 2000, EDO-FL-00-05. Retrieved February 20, 2006, from http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/0005contextual.html

Discuss that the imperialism should not exist essays

Discuss that the imperialism should not exist essays Imperialism is the practice of gaining colonies for money, trade, political, power. European wants Africa under development. They stop Africa from creating new market. For example, British and India had textile industry; British did not want competition of India. With its control, India had to buy England textile. Therefore, India cannot produce its own textile market. Europeans prevent other countries from creating their own market. Just because of competition for textile, British use its own power to put textile India industry down. Therefore, these poor and small countries are not able to stand their feet up. European countries first came to Africa to view the nature beauty. Then they realize that Africa is rich in natural resources that their countries do not have. Then they began to colonize Africa. For example, British is an industrialized country. It required many resources for industrialized companies, but it does not have enough resources in its own country. Instead of buying these resources from other countries, it colonized Africa to get these resources without buying it. Not only have those, nations in Europe competed to colonize expansion on Africa. Countries in Africa were not an advanced, powerful enough to stop European army. The scramble for Africa began when Henry Stanley claimed the Congo River valley for Belgium. France claimed Algeria and built the Suez Canal. Britain took Egypt in order to control the canal, which is important to shipping the resources back to their countries. Britain defeats the Boers to control of the rich resources in southern Africa. Cecil Rhodes became rich from Kimberly diamond field. Just because of natural resources that they control Africa. They should not do that. That interfere other country rights. By using their power, Europeans countries can do whatever they want. They should not take over the countries resources without paying money for that. That is not ri...

Formal Criticism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Formal Criticism - Essay Example This paper will use formal analysis of a selection of scenes from the film 2046 by Wong Kar-wai to highlight Sontag's objection to such analysis. The film explores the experiences surrounding the many loves of the main character, Chow Mo Wan, but doesn't give a precise meaning for the events or even the relationships themselves. The film opens with the enigmatic and multi-layered image of a large, donut-shaped object. It is dark and smooth and shiny, yet also gives the impression of the spiral form of a shell. This represents the "hole in the tree" into which, according to a story repeated by Chow several times in the film, people whisper their deepest secrets, after which they fill the hole with mud to prevent the secret from ever being discovered. As Chow talks about a woman he once loved, we see a woman from behind, whispering her secret into the hole. We don't see her face. The film is filled with images that try to enlarge and deepen the impression that human memory and meaning are limited. The settings are few; a few hotel rooms, a rooftop, streets in which all that is shown is the street light or the wall of a building, a club, a restaurant, and the futuristic train that exists within the science fiction story Chow is writing. Also simplified are the appearances of the actors, almost always shown only from the chest up. They are frequently shown alone, even while conversing with another character. The colors red and black dominate the dcor and the clothing, and dark lighting is used in the majority of the scenes. On rare occasions light colors and daytime scenes are used, as when one of the hotel owner's two young and still somewhat innocent daughters is shown dressed in light green, or when a character is seen on the hotel rooftop during the day. Similarly, worldly women, or women who become worldly during the film, almost inevitably smoke and wear red, black, or gold. Many conclusions could be drawn from such repetitive symbolic content, but from Sontag's point of view, it would be a mistake to do so. Would smoking be interpreted as worldliness at all times and in all cultures, just as the colors a woman wears would always reveal her level of morality If we allow ourselves to see the red dress and the cigarette as symbolic of something specific and universal, do we then, for instance, start to ignore the facial expressions Even here the film seems to adhere to a pattern; the majority of expression shown by the actors is whether and when they do and don't look at one another. This could be interpreted as a device of emotional distancing between people who try to avoid intimacy while at the same time desperately yearning for it. Could it be that the visual elements of the film are simplified in order to force our attention to less obvious parts of the story, or to more subtle characterizations of the actors But it could also be said that the film us es such devices in order to render a flatness and hopelessness in the storyline that lets the viewer know well in advance that there will be no happy endings here. The film doesn't defend itself against this kind of analysis. In one particularly engaging sequence, Chow is writing a futuristic story in which he imagines himself as a Japanese man riding a train into the year 2046, "the place where people go to recover memories". It is

Different phases of the project life cycle require a flexible approach Essay

Different phases of the project life cycle require a flexible approach in leadership style and skills - Essay Example Whenever we talk about the methods implicated in the project management we in general refer those methods towards the management of people as well as resources. The management of people is the management of workers. Management of people guides us about the roles and duties that a worker can perform in a project for making a project successful. It also guides management what type of staff should reserve for a specific project (Kerzner, 2003). A project manager or leader plays an important role in the success and failure of a project. This paper explains different leadership tactics and qualities during the different life cycle stages of the project. This paper explains the contemporary leadership traits, skills, and behaviors principles, comprising interesting developing views in the changing project life cycle stages, It has placed the gap between extant theory and leadership in technology projects lacks practitioner reflection-in-action, in that existing literature does not prove wh at effective global project managers actually do within the dynamic situational context of multiple competing demands. First of all we will discuss the qualities of a leader, the important point to mention is that: this section will discuss the project’s manger or leader’s project handling qualities, tests and important abilities that he must have in the changing environment. Then next section explains the different qualities and project management styles those are necessary for the project in the each life cycle stages of the project. The last section contains the conclusion and references. Suggested different project management approaches are correct for different stages of project (Kenneth, 1998). This would suggest that different project management styles, and thus different competency profiles and leadership styles for the project manager would be appropriate for different phases of project. Why we emphasis the leadership or its qualities, the

Analysing SME Policy in Ireland

Analysing SME Policy in Ireland Social Network Analysis CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Research Design The proposed design for this study is a flexible mixed-method design making use of both qualitative and quantitative methods for data collection and analysis in order to understand and later analyse policy implementation networks for MSEs in Ireland, particularly concerning those in the Dublin 15 area. This approach was required for two reasons: 1) time and resource constraints; and 2) the literature reviewed for this research indicated that such an approach would provide better answers to the questions being asked. As shown in Table 1 below, this method was also important to establish the complimentary nature of the methods being used for the enquiry. For example, qualitative methods were required initially for content analysis of documents produced by the European Commission and the Dept. of Trade, Enterprise and Employment. However, a quantitative approach is given to the treatment of the relationships under investigation namely, mandatory and voluntary cooperation for policy implementation. Therefore, the following steps were taken for this particular research:- 1. Internet research for qualitative content analysis and name generation of policy actors and policies being made at both European and Irish levels; 2. Short open-ended qualitative interview with a major policy actor in Ireland for name generation of policy implementation actors; 3. Quantitative data collection and non-random sampling and estimate number of start-up companies in the Dublin 15 area; and 4. Data collection and analysis using Social Network Analysis methodology for all names generated to measure the effects of mandatory and voluntary cooperation among policy actors. Patience A follow-up interview with a key informant on the network composition and to confirm that the relationships drawn on the literature for policy implementation indeed existed in the manner they were in the questionnaire. In this case, a Head of Small Business Unit in the Department of Enterprise, Trade and Employment could confirm the relationship among the actors in the network from an ‘ego’ perspective and pros and cons for this approach will be discussed further in the methodology chapter. The table below gives an illustration of the design being used and it follows the design approach suggested by Creswell et alli 2003:- Table 1 – Sequential Research Design Implementation Priority Integration Theoretical Perspective Sequential – Qualitative first Quantitative At Data Collection   and Interpretation Explicit With Some Combination As mentioned earlier, this design draws on Creswell’s (2003) work about various research design approaches – with special attention to the use of mixed-methods in the human sciences. A rather overt and systematic use of the methods have grown in popularity and it is evidenced in the work entitled Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social Behavioral Sciences, launched in 2003 by Abbas Tashakkory and Charles Teddlie and from which Creswell derives most of his useful explanations on the advantages and weaknesses of such a design. In a flexible design, the researcher is given a greater freedom to change research questions as the research progresses since she would be rigidly attached to one philosophical paradigm or the other, but would find relevant to include those that make sense to the enquiry as it evolves. On the other hand, making use of both qualitative and quantitative methods for data collection and analysis – whether they take place sequentially or concurrently, allows for a richer understanding and, hopefully, explanation of the problematic under investigation. Details of the methodologies and paradigms they are associated with are dealt with in the Methodology chapter. For this section is imperative now that the researcher makes the esteemed reader aware of the possible biases and the actions taken to deal with them. Bias statement It has been argued that bias is when systematic random or non-random errors are not accepted or acknowledged by the researcher at any point of her work, such as in the design, measurement, sampling, procedure, or choice of problem to be studied. Bias is also related to the accuracy of the information produced and reliability and validity may also be sacrificed, though not necessarily. Hammersley and Gomm (1997), however, assert that nonfoundationalist realism is rather appropriate for it neither relies on foundational epistemology nor it does on relativist and standpoint theory and its aims are to favour the production of knowledge rather than one’s political or personal agenda. According to these authors, foundationalism makes bias a rather evident matter in a research once the researcher’s ideological commitments are indentified as affecting research procedures hence compromising outcomes expected credibility. But bias is not as straightforward as foundationalists, according to them, would like it to be. In a nonfoundationlist realistic perspective, social researchers are not part of the phenomena they want to describe or explain nor can they construct phenomena through their accounts, but merely account for these realities and be judgemental of the influence that what they understand for established knowledge can have on their accounts of social r eality. (1997) In this research, in a foundationalist perspective, the biases that could possibly compromise the commitment with knowledge production is that:- 1) the researcher is a micro-entrepreneur from the vicinities; 2) her commitment with epistemological views of policy networks as ineffective given the predominant hierarchical structure and political agendas; 3) Snowball sampling technique may introduce bias for it may not represent a good cross section of the population investigated; and 4) Questionnaires sent to MSEs were not returned for reasons which will be explained in the Methodology chapter. This can also lead to incorrect conclusions. However, this is not an action research and the methodologies applied for enquiry on policy implementation networks aim to control for bias arising from the researchers’ own point of view regarding cooperation for the benefit of Small and Micro Enterprises in Dublin 15. Moreover, from a nonfoundationalistic realism view point, efforts were consciously made in order to avoid that knowledge so far taken as established in the field of cooperation among actors in policy networks compromises the knowledge produced by the evidence on cooperation among actors in this research. Taking the above into consideration, one of the methodologies used is a qualitative approach considering respondents’ representations of reality through a qualitative content analysis and qualitative techniques in social network analysis. Once data were generated, they were treated by using quantitative data analysis techniques and were converted into algebraic formulae reflecting responses given, i.e. whether a relation exists or not between two actors or more and if it is reciprocal one is a matter of replacing YES and NO answers, or in this case BLUE and RED arrows, for 1 and 0, respectively. This is not to say that social network analysis will serve as a complete assurance for validity and credibility, as questionnaire return rates and responses can indeed compromise it. It is hoped, however, that the weaknesses evident on this work are rather derivative from the very limited time afforded to Taught Masters students, effectively from May to August 2009, than from research bias. 1.2 Justification This work has a scientific and practical relevance and they are equally important as it is hoped that its findings and conclusion will not just add to the scientific knowledge but also reach the actors involved in policy implementation for micro and small enterprises in Ireland as well as those concerned with aspects of economic development. In the scientific sphere, this study will be initially guided by O’Toole’s (1997) work stressing the increasing complexity of networked settings in the public administration where he also urges for more empirical research to be conducted in order to comprehend the impact of such settings on policy implementation. This is also Blair’s (2002) views in his work on implementation networks in which he infers that complex systems formed by actors both coming from both the public and private sectors are assumed in now-a-days public administration. According to Blair, this will help measure the level of direct action by the government so to assess the complexity of such networks and he goes on to borrow from Alexander (1995) the concept of compulsory and voluntary links as the essence of policy implementation systems. Further to such concepts, the focus of this study is on mandatory and voluntary cooperation amongst MSEs stakeholders both in the public and private sectors. Having it all said, measuring service integration among agencies is not the objective of this study. Instead, it will try to leverage on social network analysis practice and theory to measure centrality, closeness, structural holes and brokerage (Freeman 1979; Burt 1995 and 2005). Other theorists, especially those whose studies are within social network analysis (Simmel 1995; Wellman 1983; Hanneman 2005), and regarding the bureaucratic aspect of the public administration (Weber 1978 and Blau 2006) and the (potential) social capital resulting from networks (Bourdieu 1986; Putnam 1995; and Fukuyama 1996) will also be used in the hope to complement existing literature on the topic. The above will, indeed, guide this study all the way through. 1.3 Chapter Outline CHAPTER III: LITERATURE REVIEW Defining the size of a business This research does not aim to be seen under the umbrella of business studies, but a sociological study of cooperation among policy implementation actors for policies in benefit of micro and small businesses in Ireland. Nevertheless, it is found pertinent to use business literature in order to outline the most commonly used definitions of business’ size according to factor inherent to its life cycle. The literature on organisation life cycle (OLC) has been found to be the most appropriate to define the size of a business. However, it is important to note that professionals used to working with businesses may find their own ways of defining business’ size and may as well widely disagree from the scholarly models created and widely used to date. The traditional models for sizing a company were given mostly in the 1980s first through conceptual works and eventually through empirical research which attempted to establish the phases of an organisation according to the environmental issues it faced throughout its existence (Rutherford et al. 2004). The literature consulted for this section has shown that one of the models that has been most cited and used as a reference is that created by Miller and Friesen (1984) whereby the organisation life cycle was divided into five phases: birth, growth, maturity, revival and decline (1984: 1162). These phases can be summarised according to the age, size and growth rate of the organisation. In summary, these phases were the birth phase for small companies, the growth phase for medium-sized companies, the maturity phase for larger organisations, the revival for very large and finally the decline phase for market size companies. The latter phase is linked with the decline in innovation and with environmental factors such as market dry-up. Meanwhile the earlier phases of the business are linked with the most innovative, although unstructured, stages of the organisation (1984: idem). Figure 2 below exemplifies the above:- Figure 2. Organisation life cycle (OLC) and its expected size per phase. The head count for the traditional models is shows as 0-4 persons employed in the birth phase, then 5-19 employees in the medium-sized firms and finally above 20 in the larger ones (Huang and Brown 1999 cf. Rutherford et al. 2004). Weaknesses of this model have been pointed by more recent works (Stubbart and Smalley 1990; Tichey 1980 cf. Rutherford, Buller and McMullen 2004) which took different views and approaches to establishing the different phases an organisation goes through. Other works making use of open-ended choices rather than forced-choice methods to identify an organisation’s problems according to its size, have found that obtaining external financing, internal financial management, economic environment and regulatory environment are problems often experienced by organisations in their start-up and growth phase (Terpstra and Olson 1993 cf. Rutherford, Buller and McMullen 2004) Taking definition from a different angle, the authors Rutherford et al. (2004) infer that other models have been created to overcome the weaknesses presented in previous models and the model by Kihenen (1990), which makes use of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) in order to depict rather realistic stages of an organisation given a series of other factors not limited to age, size and growth rate and it is similar to a cluster analysis and named as self-organising map (SOM). This model, different from traditional models, including the model created by Miller and Friesen (1984), does not force firms to fit into predetermined groups but allows for stages to fall into categories given by the data under study (2004: 328). Nevertheless, the traditional model remains imperative throughout their work and so it will throughout this work. The reason is twofold: a) the traditional definitions have been confirmed through empirical work and across countries; and b) it is assumed here that the proble ms faced by an organisation in each phase of its existence can be logically linked with the needs of these organisations for growth. Hence, policy-making and implementation, as it will be demonstrated later on, is more likely to follow traditional models than novel models. Though this is not to say that new findings on an organisation’s functioning will not be appreciated by policy actors. Moreover, taking into consideration the criticism on the traditional models it is therefore acknowledged that the adoption of traditional model is merely as starting point for reference given the insufficient time for the maturing of this study. Table 3 below shows the most common problems in organisations given their size and phase found by traditional models which have also been confirmed by more current studies utilising different organisational typology techniques:- Table 3. Problems helping establish the size and stage of an organisation. Problems Stage/Phase Headcount Newness, obtaining external finance, internal finance management, unstructured, informal, product development, economic and regulation environment, weak client base, owner/manager dominated. Birth/Start-up (Small firms) 0-4 employees Production efficiency and effectiveness, human resources management and re-organisation, economic and regulation environment. Growth (Medium-sized firms) 5-19 employees Maintaining growth momentum and market position, economic environment, production stagnation and lack of innovation, and employee retention. Stability/Maturity and Decline (Large firms) 20+ employees Source:Miller and Friesen 1984; Kazanjian 1988; Terpstra and Olson 1993 and Huang and Brown 1999 (cf. Rutherford et al. 2004). Conceptualising the phases and problems of organisations will help us understand the policies made in benefit of micro and small businesses in the European Union. However, a point in time must be made regarding the micro-enterprises that may not fit into the typology above given the ethos of their existence. In Europe, the crafts industry is within the definition for micro-enterprises as well as entrepreneurs in the rural areas. However, one should also consider the large number of self-employed professionals such as plumbers, carpenters, painters and also accountants whom may never expand their business, formalising it into a company hence adhering to the organisational life cycle above. Nevertheless, they too generate employment and tax revenue on top of their networked oriented business behaviour hence contributing to the country’s economy but as well as for social and local integration in Europe (European Commission’s SME Portal Observatory Report of European Enterprises 2003/7). Given the above, the needs for micro and small enterprises will vary according to their problems and other human aspects inherent of the cultural and social settings and mindset businesses are found. These settings have been acknowledged by the European Commission in providing assistance to groups widely seen as minorities in large scale businesses, but forming a large number among micro and small entrepreneurs, namely women and immigrants. The Concept of Policy Implementation Networks In policy network theory, implementation networks have been categorised and conceptualised mostly according to the context in which they have emerged in order to either reduce transaction costs or resolve problems effectively. Such a context will determine the resources and power that members will share on their way to achieve their shared goals or resolve their common problems (Provan and Milward 1995 and Bozer 1996). The subject of context is here defined as the ethos and habitus of policy implementation networks in general and they will be explained later on in this chapter. Modern states are now dealing with problems of greater complexity and this requires a superior level of negotiation and public participation in order for services to be delivered to the public as effectively as it is possible. For this reason, O’Toole (1997) asks researchers and public administrators to take networks more seriously and calls for a whole research agenda on the effects they have on hierarchical structures common to public agencies and ultimately affecting policy making, implementation and evaluation (O’Toole 1997; Provan and Milward 1995, 1998 and 2001; Bolzer 1996; and Sandstrà ¶m and Carlssson 2008, among others). The last decade saw a particular growth in research interest on policy implementation networks. Most of the work produced, once satisfied with the working concepts and theoretical frameworks on the subject, now concentrates on measuring implementation effectiveness from different angles and using different methods (idem). While O’Toole (1997 and 1999) remained mostly in the theoretical field hypothesising on management action in hierarchical structures (O’Toole and Meier 1999) and Bozer (1997) strived to conceptualise networks as forms of governance, others like Blair (2002) took the empirical road either by putting to test models created by O’Toole and Meier (1999) or utilised Social Network Analysis in order to analyse networks for what they really are, social structures with interdependent interests (ibidem). As to the initial theoretical framework for policy implementation networks, O’Toole and Meier (1999) created models for managerial action in public administration taking into account the prevailing hierarchical structure of public agencies. For them, networks are of great help to public servants and they see the two structures, linear and non-linear, as poles of a continuum related to buffering in the interests of stability (1999: 510). However, it is important to note that the emphasis of their work is on improving hierarchical systems rather than replacing them for networks since the authors see the informal and inconsistent nature of networks as a weak structure for buffering environmental issues common to policy implementation or service delivery while they also believe that a hierarchical system can maximise management resources more than networks as the latter demands more of such resources in order to maintain reciprocal ties. Though, they do acknowledge that not all networks have inconsistent relationships and have achieved stability by sharing a consistent policy agenda away from a hierarchical habitus, e.g. US farmers’ network, borrowing the term in italics from Tocqueville (2004: 329). Blair (2002), on the other hand, deals with empirical quantitative research on policy implementation in the field of economic development by studying the so-called Enterprise Zones in Southern United States, very popular in the 1990s, especially during Reagan’s second term in presidency. He makes use of policy tools theory and methodology while also drawing from O’Toole and Meier’s (1999) conceptual framework and models for public management in policy systems to formulate his three major hypotheses that aim at measuring the level of direct government intervention in service delivery systems for Enterprise Zones in distressed areas. The first hypothesis states that less government direct intervention means more complex implementation networks, while the second hypothesis continues from the first by asserting that less government participation also means that more actors are involved in implementation, especially private and non-profit organisations. Finally, the third hypothesis, which will later provide the most confounding findings, posits that the private sector takes a greater role in implementing programs in economic development policy networks (2002:170). The first two hypotheses were validated by the findings and agreed with the theoretical concept framework by O’Toole and Meier (1999) on the structure of new policy implementation systems. However, the third hypothesis for which he expected a negative correlation between private and public participation in implementation, he, in fact, obtained a positive one. His findings indicated that the more active is government intervention in the EZs investigated, the more participative businesses were in implementing the programs. However, this finding, according to Blair, does not contradict what had been theorised by O’Toole and Meier’s (1999) (cf. Blair 2002), but he classifies O’Toole’s (1997) system as the old implementation system and the later as the new system. Although policy tools theory is one good way of measuring government intervention in economic development, other approaches may also provide fruitful findings and ways of analysing policy implementation networks. Bozer (1997), for example, explains that policy networks are conceived as a particular form of governance in modern policy systems (Kenis and Schneider 1991; Kooiman 1993; Mayntz 1994, cf. Bozer 1997). In fact, she notes that their main focus is on problem-solving and not on intermediating interests. Any cooperative game members play in order to negotiate strategies to arrive at a solution and based not only on mutual goals, but mostly on communication and trust while acknowledging that their values, ideas and identities are essential to the network. Therefore, Bozer understands:- Policy networks as ‘webs of relatively stable and ongoing relationships which mobilise and pool dispersed resources so that collective (or parallel) action can be orchestrated toward the solution of a common policy’ (Kenis Schneide 1993: 36 cf. Bozer 1993:5). A policy network includes all actors involved in the formulation and implementation of a policy in a policy sector. They are characterised by predominantly informal interactions between public and private actors with distinct but interdependent interests, who strive to solve problems of collective action on a central, non-hierarchical level. (Bozer 1997: idem) She asserts that scholars whom have dedicated their work to see these network members as rational actors, following a horizontal self-coordination, may forget to include some of the main aspects making for such networks in the first place. For Bozer, looking at the intermediation position that networks can have, one may realise that policy-making can be ‘blocked by dissent’ and create what she sees as the ‘bargaining dilemma’ (or prisoner’s dilemma) where ‘defection from cooperation is more rewarding than compliance for a rational actor, owing to the risk of being cheated’. (1997:4) The exception exists when ‘bargaining is voluntary’. As approaches to research change over time and so do concepts and theoretical frameworks on policy implementation networks. Though, most references analysed for this work, showed that there is more of a convergence of knowledge on the topic rather than any radical change. It was noted, however, that works on the subject matter have become more and more empirical and it was found that using structural analysis has proved rather fruitful for a much needed progression on studying it. Aside policy tools, strategic decisions and interest intermediation to share resources and increase productivity and effectiveness, networks are social structures where norms are created and crystallised or otherwise and as such they must be analysed for their properties, the opportunities (advantages) and constraints (disadvantages) that these properties can originate. In other words, since networks are dynamic social structures, the questions asked, either to understand their modus operandi or more so to measure their effectiveness, refer to how actors organise themselves to problem-solving and what are the properties that this can originate. This seems to be the approach taken by a recent study on four policy networks in the educational system in Sweden by Sandstrà ¶m and Carlssson (2008). They acknowledge the organisational roots of policy network theory and from which important concepts have emerged, such as advocacy coalitions, implementation structures, iron triangles, issue networks, policy communities, and subgovernments (Sabatier Jenkins-Smith 1993; Hjern Porter 1993; Jordan Schubert 1992; Heclo 1978; Jordan 1990; Rhodes 1990; cf. Sandstrà ¶m and Carlssson 2008). Nevertheless, their research is justified by the reasons mentioned earlier, being a lack of substantive empirical work using the methods of social network analysis to study policy networks, since only network theorists in different disciplines (Sociology, Political Science, Business Administration etc.) have been interested in the social capital derived from network properties and which is capable of evaluating outcomes and performance. The authors concluded that their theoretical and methodological approach, as aforementioned, proved fruitful for the understanding of policy networks as a structural process where heterogeneity and centralisation are beneficial to network performance whereas structural holes (poorly or non-connected actors) should be avoided when the objective is to achieve efficiency (2008:517). In this view, concepts and knowledge generated by their study converge with those generated by previous works mentioned earlier in a complimentary manner. Evidently, there are several theoretical and empirical works making valuable contribution to the conceptualisation and setting an ever richer theoretical framework to rely on. However, given the short time given for this research, we will settle for what was seen as some of the most useful works with which to begin with. The ethos and habitus of policy implementation networks After contemplating some of the most prominent and recent concepts and theories on policy implementation networks and having touched on the subject of context, we now proceed to further the discussion on the latter beginning with seminal works on bureaucracy, the original ethos of public policy making and an aspect of the context which policy networks can be found. After that it will be discussed the idea of habitus as conceived by Tocqueville on his work about the associational ability of North Americans in the United States of his times. Beginning with the former, Max Webber interpreted the bureaucratic organisation by using terms such as money economy (for its existence), but also stability and rigidity as forming the ‘mechanised bureaucratic apparatus’ while emphasising its ‘technical superiority over every other form’. (1978:345-50) In parallel to contemporary public administration systems, the bureaucratic systems conceived by Weber had similar reasons to evolve and proliferate, being the always increasing complexity in administration, pressure from interested parties for social policy and willingness by the state to increase efficiency while reducing transaction costs. Still according to Weber, authority and hierarchy are also essential to the universe occupied by the public office. However, networked systems, although still embedded in bureaucracy, being hierarchy its essence, would not posses the same strictness and uniformity. As we have seen earlier, this is not to say that todayâ⠂¬â„¢s public administration cannot achieve stability through ways other than hierarchy. (O’Toole and Meier 1999) However, it is well known that Weber came from a rather theoretical perspective, which is the opposite of Peter Blau’s (1963) case, whom has written an entire book on the American bureaucratic system as a result of his ethnographical work in the 1950s. For Blau, this type of social organisation could not be defined merely through hypotheses, but was rather the subject of empirical investigation. Moreover, he opted to see bureaucracy as an orchestrated effort of public officials to ‘transform exceptional problems into routine duties of experts’. (Hughes 1951, cf. Blau, 1963:251) In fact, Blau acknowledges that the bureaucratic system in Germany during Weber’s times were very different from the same system on Blau’s times, especially if we consider they also refer to different countries, hence of different cultures. Even if we accept that expertise, or specialism, has been the raison d’à ªtre of public administration (again, for transaction cost reduction and efficiency’s sake), social interaction among servants are always changing and recurrent cooperation among workmates and just not friends would help contribute to the emergence of the new ethos of policy implementation networks. (Blau 1963:259; Bozer 1997) Therefore, one can hypothesise that repeated social interaction among individuals within the same group or organisation will lead to cooperative behaviour and as Bozer (1997) has inferred, such interactions combined with the notion of good communication